Jolley, D. & Douglas, K. M. Prevention is better than cure: addressing anti-vaccine conspiracy theories. Reason. Experts and political elites are trusted by many and have the power to shape public perceptions58,59; therefore, it can be especially damaging when leaders make false claims. Psychol. Natl Acad. Psychol. To obtain J. Soc. & Wojdynski, B. W. Reducing native advertising deception: revisiting the antecedents and consequences of persuasion knowledge in digital news contexts. Digit. Garrett, R. K. The echo chamber distraction: disinformation campaigns are the problem not audience fragmentation. Politics 25, 788811 (2016). J. Appl. Wintersieck, A. L. Debating the truth. Copyright 2023 by KPRC Click2Houston - All rights reserved. Soc. 376, 20200145 (2021). Prev. Appl. Natl Acad. Moreover, the term disinformation is often specifically used for the subset of misinformation that is spread intentionally27. Lear. Cameron, K. A. et al. They can have a powerful influence over behavior and affect how people act in various situations. Failure to accept retractions: a contribution to the continued influence effect. Shen, C. et al. Int. & Ortega, T. Evaluating information: the cornerstone of civic online reasoning. Counsel. Inf. Journal. Swire-Thompson, B., Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S. & Berinsky, A. J. J. Psychol. J. NeuroImage 193, 4656 (2019). 8, 30 (2021). Breakstone, J. et al. 112, 782794 (2020). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets, Ecker, U.K.H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J. et al. However, the advantage of generalizability can also be a weakness, because it is often specific pieces of misinformation that cause concern, which call for more specific responses. Additionally, four non-DPS employees were also detained with potential charges pending for their possible involvement in this criminal activity. 4). 22, 225232 (2013). Mihailidis, P. & Viotty, S. Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in post-fact society. Change 3, 399404 (2013). Journal. Vaccine 36, 196198 (2018). Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online. On Aug. 18, 2023, the Texas Rangers arrested two DPS employees for their roles in this crime. Soc. Even if optimal prebunking or debunking interventions are deployed, no intervention can be fully effective or reach everyone with the false belief. Disposition c. Feeling d. Emotion d. Emotion 3. Psychol. B. et al. Bak-Coleman, J. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-56 (2021). Danielson, R. W., Sinatra, G. M. & Kendeou, P. Augmenting the refutation text effect with analogies and graphics. Paynter, J. et al. Cognit. DPS strives to maintain the highest level of integrity among its employees and will pursue prosecution for those engaging in any type of criminal activity. Such interventions might include enhancing transparency in science249,250 and journalism251, more rigorous fact-checking of political advertisements252, and reducing the social inequality that breeds distrust in experts and contributes to vulnerability to misinformation253,254. Psychological research has built solid foundational knowledge of how people decide what is true and false, form beliefs, process corrections, and might continue to be influenced by misinformation even after it has been corrected. When power is at play, those with power are innocent until proven guilty, those without it are guilty until proven innocent. 46, 204215 (2020). J. PLoS ONE 14, e0210746 (2019). 141, 11781204 (2015). For example, false claims about public health threats such as COVID-19 made by political leaders can reduce the perceived threat of the virus as well as the perceived efficacy of countermeasures, decreasing adherence to public health measures60,61. Commun. 7, 201199 (2020). & Griskevicius, V. The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms. USA 112, 38353840 (2015). Res. HOUSTON, Texas Multiple people, including two Department of Public Safety employees, have been arrested for providing fake vehicle inspections, which is known as clean scanning, in Texas. Choy, M. & Chong, M. Seeing through misinformation: a framework for identifying fake online news. In addition to writing, she also loves going to concerts, watching movies, and cooking with her family. & Basol, M. Inoculation theory in the post-truth era: extant findings and new frontiers for contested science misinformation, and conspiracy theories. Psychol. Res. The effect of news labels on perceived credibility. U.K.H.E., S.L. 21, 103156 (2020). 18, 570578 (2011). Integration hastaken place but the myth is represented in memory more strongly, and thus dominates the corrective information in the competition for activation and retrieval. Pediatrics 133, e835e842 (2014). Implic. Psychonomic Bull. However, the misinformation will remain in memory and can potentially be reactivated and retrieved later on. When reasoning about the event later (for example, responding to questions such as what should authorities do now?), individuals often continue to rely on the critical information even after receiving and being able to recall a correction89. Learn. Other demonstrations of familiarity backfire effects in the context of vaccine misinformation might be driven by worldview rather than familiarity292. 26, 15311542 (2015). Inoculation theory has also been used to explain how strategies designed to increase information literacy and media literacy could reduce the effects of misinformation. Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. Lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. An initial accuracy focus prevents illusory truth. SSRN https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3698102 (2020). Mosleh, M., Pennycook, G., Arechar, A. Cogn. Ecker, U. K. H., Butler, L. H. & Hamby, A. Int. Sci. Bennett, W. L. & Livingston, S. The disinformation order: disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. Peacock, C., Masullo, G. M. & Stroud, N. J. Whats in a label? Finally, there is evidence that corrections can also benefit from emotional recalibration. Mem. Internet Explorer). (with N.B.) In sum, the drivers of false beliefs are multifold and largely overlooked by a simple information deficit model. J. Commun. & Dhatt, R. Words matter: political and gender analysis of speeches made by heads of government during the COVID-19 pandemic. van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A. Tsipursky, G., Votta, F. & Mulick, J. Interact. acknowledge support from the European Commission (Horizon 2020 grant agreement No. We discuss the effectiveness of both pre-emptive (prebunking) and reactive (debunking) interventions to reduce the effects of misinformation, as well as implications for information consumers and practitioners in various areas including journalism, public health, policymaking and education. Behav. Corrected misinformation can also continue to influence the amount a person is willing to pay for a consumer product or their propensity to promote a social media post93,94,95. Sci.Commun. 3.1 Conscience as a faculty for indirect moral knowledge. We will update you as we know more.. There have been concerns that corrective interventions might cause harm by inadvertently strengthening misconceptions and ironically enhancing reliance on the very misinformation that is being corrected. 35, 960975 (2021). However, how a persons worldview influences misinformation corrections is still hotly debated (Box2), and there is a developing consensus that even worldview-inconsistent corrections typically have some beneficial impact91,127,128,129,130,131. There is emerging evidence that online corrections can work both pre-emptively and reactively, although this might depend on the type of correction147. In one study, participants read positive, neutral and negative headlines about the actions of specific people; social judgements about the people featured in the headlines were strongly determined by emotional valence of the headline but unaffected by trustworthiness of the news source74. Commun. Reisach, U. Kuklinski, J. H., Quirk, P. J., Jerit, J., Schwieder, D. & Rich, R. F. Misinformation and the currency of democratic citizenship. Policy 2, 8595 (2016). Given the effectiveness of algorithmic corrections, social media companies and regulators should promote implementation and evaluation of technical solutions to misinformation on social media. Psychol. Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., Richey, S. & Freed, G. L. Effective messages in vaccine promotion: a randomized trial. & Wnke, M. The truth about the truth: a meta-analytic review of the truth effect. Mem. Cognition 205, 104453 (2020). It was originally developed in the 1950s and proposed by social psychologists Godfrey Hochbaum, Irwin Rosenstock, and Rosenstock and Kirscht. Sci. Non-text-based corrections, such as videos or cartoons, also deserve more exploration269,270. 14, 238257 (2010). a | Integration account of continued influence. Authorities also discouraged . A tacit assumption of the information deficit model is that false beliefs can easily be corrected by providing relevant facts. Nyhan, B. Psychol. Likewise, some specific emotional states such as a happy mood can make people more vulnerable to deception78 and illusory truth79. acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the Volkswagen Foundation (large grant Reclaiming individual autonomy and democratic discourse online) and the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) through a Knowledge Exchange Fellowship. Educ. Variants of this paradigm have used false real-world claims or urban myths90,91,92. Rocklage, M. D., Rucker, D. D. & Nordgren, L. F. Persuasion, emotion, and language: the intent to persuade transforms language via emotionality. van der Linden, S. L., Leiserowitz, A. A third approach is to undermine the plausibility of the misinformation or the credibility of its source144. Oreskes, N. & Conway, E. M. Defeating the merchants of doubt. Psychol. If quick evaluation of a headline is followed by an opportunity to rethink, belief in fake news but not factual news is reduced52. Lewandowsky, S. & Yesilada, M. Inoculating against the spread of Islamophobic and radical-Islamist disinformation. J. Cognit. 62, 296306 (2014). Vraga, E. K., Kim, S. C., Cook, J. Psychol. Educ. Mem. Political Psychol. R. Soc. Rev. Best practices for corrections on social media echo many best practices offline112, but also include linking to expert sources and correcting quickly and early202. Amazeen, M. A. Thank you for visiting nature.com. J. Cognit. Checking the fact-checkers in 2008: predicting political ad scrutiny and assessing consistency. In sum, misinformation familiarity contributes to the CIE but does not typically produce backfire effects. Is that even checkable? 38, 10871100 (2010). Zhang, J., Featherstone, J. D., Calabrese, C. & Wojcieszak, M. Effects of fact-checking social media vaccine misinformation on attitudes toward vaccines. The spreading of misinformation online. Personal. USA 116, 76627669 (2019). Proc. Multiple approaches can be combined into a single correction for example, highlighting both the factual and logical inaccuracies in the misinformation or undermining source credibility and underscoring factual errors94,95,145. What is affect believed to be a component of? Cognit. Originally, researchers believed that everyone's attitudes contained all three bases, but we now know that some attitudes do not contain all . Accordingly, asking people to explain how they know that news headlines are true or false reduces sharing of false political headlines278, and brief accuracy nudges simple interventions that prompt people to consider the accuracy of the information they encounter or share can reduce sharing of false news about politics207 and COVID-19 (ref.279). Curr. Individually, each intervention might only incrementally reduce the spread of misinformation, but one preprint that has not been peer-reviewed suggests that combinations of interventions can have a substantial impact246. Psychol.Sci. This study found that corrections of dubious claims were more (rather than less) potent when more counterarguments were used, so long as those counterarguments were relevant286. 57, 1369613697 (2018). Memory Cogn. Psychological targeting as an effective approach to digital mass persuasion. & Lazer, D. Searching for the backfire effect: measurement and design considerations. Today, misinformation campaigns can leverage digital infrastructure that is unparalleled in its reach. volume1,pages 1329 (2022)Cite this article. Margolin, D. B., Hannak, A. J. Crockett, M. J. Dir. Sangalang, A., Ophir, Y. This rejection of science is not the result of mere ignorance but is driven by factors such as conspiratorial mentality, fears, identity expression and motivated reasoning reasoning driven more by personal or moral values than objective evidence19,23,24,25,26. Future empirical and theoretical work would benefit from development of an overarching theoretical model that aims to integrate cognitive, social and affective factors, for example by utilizing agent-based modelling approaches. on Practical implications. Affect. Online misinformation transmission involves both a receiver (the person encountering the misinformation) and a sender (the person making or sharing the misinformation). You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. Misinformation corrections might be especially important in social media contexts because they can reduce false beliefs not just in the target of the correction but among everyone that sees the correction a process termed observational correction119. Thoughtless sharing can amplify misinformation that might confuse and deceive others. PubMed The Debunking Handbook 2020 (George Mason Univ., 2020). A psychological approach to promoting truth in politics: the pro-truth pledge. Behav. Correspondence to 50, 755769 (2006). If pre-emptive correction is not possible or ineffective, practitioners should take a reactive approach. Political Psychol. Q. Brashier, N. M. & Marsh, E. J. Judging truth. Amazeen, M. A. 8, 98107 (2019). & Weber, I. Simple language and informative graphics can facilitate knowledge revision, especially if fact comprehension might be otherwise difficult or if the person receiving the correction has a strong tendency to counterargue194,195,196,197. 97, 161187 (2020). 9, 155 (2019). Adv. 658, 3666 (2015). Carnahan, D., Bergan, D. E. & Lee, S. Do corrective effects last? Clim. Thus, the overkill backfire effect does not have empirical support. & van der Linden, S. Breaking Harmony Square: a game that inoculates against political misinformation. Sci. Prike, T., Arnold, M. M. & Williamson, P. The relationship between anomalistic belief misperception of chance and the base rate fallacy. Although some researchers have argued that familiarity backfire might occur when a correction spreads novel misinformation to new audiences185, only one study has found support for this claim (and only in one of two experiments)291, with other studies finding no evidence112,151,222. Combining interventions to reduce the spread of viral misinformation. Cogn. B. et al. Psychol. Lang. Cogn. Brady, W. J., Crockett, M. J. For example, if a fire was thought to have been caused by negligence, then providing a causal alternative (there is evidence for arson) is more effective than a retraction (there was no negligence). OSF https://osf.io/cdfh3/ (2021). An alternative account is based on the premise that the CIE arises from selective retrieval of the misinformation even when corrective information is present in memory (Fig. Sci. Katsaounidou, A., Vrysis, L., Kotsakis, R., Dimoulas, C. & Veglis, A. MAthE the game: a serious game for education and training in news verification. Ithisuphalap, J., Rich, P. R. & Zaragoza, M. S. Does evaluating belief prior to its retraction influence the efficacy of later corrections? 1. This research should also employ non-experimental methods230,231,271, such as observational causal inference (research aiming to establish causality in observed real-world data)272, and test the impact of interventions in the real world145,174,181,207. & Graves, L. Correcting political and consumer misperceptions: the effectiveness and effects of rating scale versus contextual correction formats. For example, misinformation that a vaccine has caused an unexpectedly large number of deaths might be incorporated with knowledge related to diseases, vaccinations and causes of death. Thus, while engaged with content, individuals should slow down, think about why they are engaging and interrogate their visceral response. Personal. Behav. Rev. Lewandowsky, S. Conspiracist cognition: chaos convenience, and cause for concern. Ecker, U. K. H., Hogan, J. L. & Lewandowsky, S. Reminders and repetition of misinformation: helping or hindering its retraction? Thus, repetition increases belief in both misinformation and facts40,41,42,43. J. Appl. Numerous best practices for debunking have emerged90,145,183. Ecker, U. K. H. & Ang, L. C. Political attitudes and the processing of misinformation corrections. It is, therefore, important to scrutinize whether the practices and algorithms of media platforms are optimized to promote misinformation or truth. As noted above, our thoughts and feelings lead to behavior and so discrimination is when a person acts in a way that is negative against a group of people. 102, 7290 (1987). Political Mark. Conscience as motivation to act morally. The MAD model of moral contagion: The role of motivation, attention, and design in the spread of moralized content online. More work is needed to consider what types of literacy interventions are most effective for conferring resistance to different types of misinformation in the contemporary media and information landscape178. Psychol. 69, 298319 (2019). Lazi, A. Inf. This influence might be due to a general negativity bias11,135 or more specific emotional influences. Parker, K. A., Ivanov, B. Br. BMC Public Health 15, 1207 (2015). Behav. Jaiswal, J., LoSchiavo, C. & Perlman, D. C. Disinformation, misinformation and inequality-driven mistrust in the time of COVID-19: lessons unlearned from AIDS denialism. Change 159, 120201 (2020). A digital media literacy intervention increases discernment between mainstream and false news in the United States and India. Rich, P. R. & Zaragoza, M. S. The continued influence of implied and explicitly stated misinformation in news reports. 28, 247253 (2019). J. 2a). Porter, E. & Wood, T. J. Lying in everyday life. Proc. PubMed 20, 14201436 (1994). The authentic appeal of the lying demagogue: proclaiming the deeper truth about political illegitimacy. Lewandowsky, S. et al. Proc. Beliefs in conspiracy theories following ostracism. Clim. Debunking should provide a plausible alternative cause for an event or factual details, preface the misinformation with a warning and explain any logical fallacies or persuasive techniques used to promote the misinformation.
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