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93-106, Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Harvard Divinity School, Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory, No. An account of the age of Iconoclasm opens appropriately, then, with its military history. Even the venom used by the iconodule chroniclers of Constantines reign cannot disguise the enormous popularity his victories won him. The trigger for Leo IIIs prohibition may have even been the huge volcanic eruption in 726 in the Aegean Sea interpreted as a sign of Gods anger over the veneration of icons. Organizations and agencies that work to protect cultural heritage, Backstories: additional endangered objects and sites, https://smarthistory.org/byzantine-iconoclasm-2/. Iconoclasm He skillfully persuaded Nicholass delegates to a council summoned at Constantinople to investigate the matter that he was the lawful patriarch despite the persisting claims of the rival Ignatian faction. His successors all but let slip the gains won by the great iconoclast. For reasons not entirely clear, Theodora and Theoktistos installed the iconophile patriarch Methodios I and once again affirmed religious images in 843, definitively ending Byzantine Iconoclasm. Roundels with crosses, which survive today, likely once contained portraits of saints, which patriarch Niketas is said to have removed. This started a conflict between the Papacy and the Byzantine emperor and the iconoclast patriarchs of Constantinople. For the next two generations, Eastern and Western Christianity were embroiled in the iconoclast versus iconodule (iconophile) debate. Byzantine iconoclasm peaked during the reign of Constantine V, who convened the Council of Hieria in 754, which supported iconoclasm and promoted the cross as the primary symbol of Christianity and imperial power, and the Eucharistnot iconsas the true image of Christ. Another source could have stemmed from the writings of Eusebius of Caesarea, a 4th-century historian and theologian who considered that the divine nature of Christ is incomprehensible. The Byzantine Empire faced invasions from Persians and Arabs in the seventh century, resulting in significant loss of territory. Even though he changed his standing on icons in a few instances, Theodore composed a polemic discourse, the Refutatio, refuting the arguments of the new Iconoclasts. Both Muslims and Jews perceived Christian images (that existed from the earliest times of Christianity) as idols and in direct opposition to the Old Testament prohibition of visual representations. Nicholas, alleging that his men had been bribed, excommunicated Photius; a council at Constantinople responded (867) by excommunicating Nicholas in turn. Iconoclasts (Greek for breakers of images) refers to those who opposed icons. The largest collection of early icons today, dating to as early as the 6th century, is at St. Catherine's Monastery at Mount Sinai. The ideas of the council were mainly drawn from the writings of John of Damascus, an earlier opponent of Iconoclasm. This council affirmed the view of the iconophiles, ordering all right-believing (orthodox) Christians to respect holy icons, prohibiting at the same time their adoration as idolatry. The iconoclasts argued that God was invisible and infinite, and therefore beyond human ability to depict in images. At Smarthistory we believe art has the power to transform lives and to build understanding across cultures. His work indicates the degree of gradual Byzantine penetration into the coastal fringes of the Balkan Peninsula, as does the number of themes organized in that same region during the early 9th century: those of Macedonia, Thessalonica, Dyrrhachium, Dalmatia, and the Strymon. Iconoclasm Did the reach of Constantinople's policies really extend beyond the borders of its military control? Solidus of Justinian II showing Christ on one side (left) and the emperor on the other side (right), 69295, Constantinople, gold, 4.43 g, 2cm (photo: Yale University Art Gallery, CC0). Images: www.billlyons.com / Courtesy of the Department of Antiquities, Amman. Iconophiles (Greek for lovers of images), also known as iconodules (Greek for servants of images), refers to those who supported the use of religious images. The Protestant Reformation, in many ways a fundamentalist revolt, sparked iconoclastic riots across Europe in the 16th century. Under his son, Constantine V (ruled 741775), the iconoclastic movement intensified, taking the form of violent persecution of the monastic clergy, the foremost defenders of the iconodule position. Even that brief summary suggests that the emperors fortunes on the battlefield were of no small moment in determining his attitude toward the icons, those channels whence superhuman power descended to man. We created Smarthistory to provide students around the world with the highest-quality educational resources for art and cultural heritagefor free. In only one respect does he occupy an important place in the annals of the Byzantine Empire. I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. Apse mosaic depicting the Virgin and Child, dedicated 867, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: byzantologist, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0). Around this same time, emperor Justinian II incorporated icons of Christ onto his coins. 3. document.getElementById( "ak_js_2" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); JSTOR Daily provides context for current events using scholarship found in JSTOR, a digital library of academic journals, books, and other material. The first phase of Iconoclasm: 720s787 Historical texts suggest the struggle over images began in the 720s. Between 726 and 727, an enormous volcanic eruption hit the islands of Thera and Therasia in the Aegean Sea. Soon his supporters were tearing down existing ones. Details of the mosaics on the western courtyard wall from the Friday Mosque, Damascus, 705715. But did you know that iconoclast was originally a literal description of someone who actually broke things? Iconoclasts, or image breakers, fought against the iconophiles, those who loved and supported the use of icons. The first image introduced to the Hagia Sophia was the Virgin and Child in the apse around 867. The Iconoclastic Controversy over religious images was a defining moment in the history of the Eastern Roman Byzantine Empire. 44, No. Iconoclasm in Byzantium In Rome, Pope Gregory III, declared iconoclasm heretical in 730, but it took the Second Council of Nicaea, in787, to agree thaticons were legitimate once again in Byzantium. Thomas the Slavonian, Michaels former comrade in arms, gave himself out to be the unfortunate Constantine VI and secured his coronation at the hands of the Patriarch of Antioch. Iconoclasts like Leo III, on the other hand, believed icons represented actual people, and Jesus should only be represented in the Eucharist. Not only was Iconoclasm a major episode in the history of the Byzantine, or Orthodox, Church, but it also permanently affected relations between the empire and Roman Catholic Europe. We have provided a link on this CD below to Acrobat Reader v.8 installer. Iconoclasts argued that it did, creating too close a connection between the image and the actual person depicted. Going further, Constantine V ordered prosecutions of his religious and political adversaries, which were mainly abbots and monks. Even though the Byzantines shortly returned to the veneration of icons, Romes newfound relationship with the Franks could not be broken. Though reasons for Leo IIIs Iconoclasm seem primarily religious, historians have argued that the emperor wanted to restrain the growing political power and wealth of monasteries by prohibiting icons. The Second Iconoclasm was between 814 CE and 842 CE. All those may explain the weakness displayed throughout Theophiluss reign, when a Muslim army defeated the emperor himself (838) as a prelude to the capture of the fortress of Amorium in Asia Minor. That was accomplished with the willing permission of the Muslim caliph under whose jurisdiction Antioch lay. But in Christs person, God became visible, as a concrete human being, so painting Christ is necessary as a proof that God truly, not seemingly, became man. Constantine Vwho, as an iconoclast, opposed pictorial depictions of Christ and the saintsis credited with decorating the apse of the church with a cross, which the iconoclasts found acceptable. an enormous volcanic eruption hit the islands of Thera and Therasia, the estrangement of the Roman Catholic Church. However, none of these caused the tremendous social, political and cultural upheaval of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Assisted by Omortag and relying upon the defenses of Constantinople, Michael defeated his enemy, but the episode suggests the tensions beneath the surface of Byzantine society: the social malaise, the ethnic hostility, and the persisting discord created by Iconoclasm. Iconoclasm 2 (Apr., 1951), pp. Byzantine iconoclasm ended in 843 when the Empress Theodora, widow of Emperor Theophilus, reversed her husband's iconoclastic position and allowed the return of icons to places of worship. Make sure you have Adobe Acrobat Reader v.5 or above installed on your computer for viewing and printing the PDF resources on this site. In the 8th century, the Eastern or Orthodox branch of Christianity gave history the word iconoclasm, from the Greek words for icon smashing. In Orthodox Christianity, ikons images of God, Mary, saints, and martyrs are more than just paintings or mosaics: they are holy objects in of themselves and worthy of veneration. The intent of icons was to give the viewer a focal point and reminder as they prayed. During the late 6th and 7th centuries, iconodule emperors had viewed themselves in a pietistic fashion, emphasizing their devotion and subservience to God. The only surviving evidence of destruction of images in the Byzantine capital survives at Hagia Sophia, in audience halls (sekreta) that connected the southwestern corner of the church at the gallery level with the patriarchal palace. Clearly, while the iconoclasts opposed certain types of religious imagery, they did not reject art entirely, and were sometimes important patrons of art and architecture, as was Constantine V. There is also evidence that emperor Theophiloswho reigned during the second phase of Iconoclasmexpanded and lavishly decorated the imperial palace and other spaces. copyright 2003-2023 Study.com. And pagans could argue that veneration of the Cross, say, was another form of wood-worship, not so different from worshipping trees. The council drew on the pro-image writings of a Syrian monk, Saint John of Damascus, who lived c. 675749. If you think there should be more material, feel free to help us develop more! The wider political consequences were seen by the estrangement of the Roman Catholic Church, which rejected the teachings of Iconoclasm. Today, St. Catherine's Monastery has the largest collection of Byzantine icons due to its distance from the Iconoclasm. In later centuries, the folk of Constantinople would stand by his tomb, seeking his aid against whatever enemy imperiled the citys defenses. Underlying those differences were two more powerful considerations, neither of which could be ignored. The importance of the iconoclastic controversy and its immediate influence on art can be seen in one of the remaining 9th-century manuscripts: the Chludov Psalter, made around the middle of the 9th century, just as Orthodoxy triumphed over Iconoclasm. The Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy was not merely an intellectual debate, but was also an inflection point in the history of Byzantine art itself. After the Arabs lost the naval battle and retreated from Constantinople, Leo III kept wondering why his empire was in ruins. The sociologists Michael Radlet and Marian Borg test out six arguments for and against capital punishment. 41 (October 1973), pp. Iconoclasm Phase 1 (yellow) The original mosaics predate Iconoclasm and were probably created in the late seventh or early eighth century. So what kind of art did the destroyers of icons make? Hagia Eirene, begun 532, rebuilt following an earthquake in 740, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: Alexxx1979, CC BY-SA 4.0), Hagia Eirene, begun 532, rebuilt following an earthquake in 740, Constantinople (Istanbul) (photo: Gryffindor, CC0). His son, Michael III, was too young to rule alone, so empress Theodora (Michael IIIs mother), and the eunuch Theoktistos (an official), ruled as regents until Michael III came of age. - Biography, Books & Quotes, The Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536: Facts & Overview, Guy Fawkes Night Poem: Meaning & Analysis, The Rye House Plot of 1683: Definition & Impact, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community, Describe the events of the Byzantine Iconoclasm. An icon is a portrayal of a religious figure, particularly of Christ, meant as an aid to worship. Leo used the breathing space to reconstruct those Thracian cities that the Bulgars had earlier destroyed. John argued that while the Hebrew scriptures indeed prohibited the depiction of God on the basis of His invisibility, the appearance of God in Jesus Christ enabled God to be both seen and depicted. Left: Mosaic Depicting Nikopolis Set over an Altered Animal; Right: Mosaic Depicting an Altered Ox. One of the pages represents the Crucifixion when Roman soldiers offer vinegar on a sponge to Christ. Being born in Germanikeia, where the iconoclast tradition of monophysitism was widespread, Leo III had already shown intentions of pursuing this path. Dura-Europos Synagogue | Architecture, Features, & Preservation, The Bayeux Tapestry & the Battle of Hastings | Overview & History, Carolingian Art | Overview, Renaissance & Characteristics, The Influence of Monastic Orders on Romanesque Art & Architecture, Christian Monasticism | History, Impact & Orders, Justinian & Theodora | Marriage, Facts & Mosaics, Byzantine Empire | Timeline, Culture & Facts. Constantinople had followed the Orthodox view established at the Council of Nicaea, but this later changed. The emperor Justinian constructed the church of Hagia Eirene in Constantinople (Istanbul) in the sixth century, but the churchs dome was not well supported, and the building was badly damaged by an earthquake in 740. If one called this day the beginning and day of Orthodoxy . Create your account, 32 chapters | Privacy Policy Contact Us Khludov Psalter (detail), 9th century. By keeping the worshipper's focus on the entity at hand, the icons served as an aid to worship, much as some Eastern religions use a focal point to aid in meditation. WebDefine iconoclasm. The iconoclasts also objected to practices of honoring icons with candles and incense, and by bowing before and kissing them, in which worshippers seemed to worship created matter (the icon itself) rather than the creator. According to traditional accounts, Iconoclasm was prompted by emperor Leo III removing an icon of Christ from the Chalke Gate of the imperial palace in Constantinople in 726 or 730, sparking a widespread destruction of images and But the iconophiles asserted that when Christians honored images of Christ and the saints like this, they did not worship the artwork as such, but honored the holy person represented in the image. Part of the Psalter discusses the controversy using illustrations. Unusually, these crosses were not replaced by other mosaics nor destroyed in the ensuing centuries. However, a few decades later, under the reign of Empress Irene in 787, the Second Council of Nicaea condemned the Council of Hieria and argued for the continued use and veneration of icons, distinguishing the devotion (proskynesis) given to icons from the worship (latreia) given to God alone. Iconoclasm . The iconoclasts supported their opinion to destroy icons because Arabic forces were successfully invading the Byzantine Empire. To which, in consequence, would they owe their spiritual allegiance? What, then, was behind this eighth-century "iconoclasm" in Jordan and Palestine? This meant that by imperial decree, the production of religious images was not only prohibited but the already existing artworks were actively destroyed. The sentiment had grown in intensity during the 7th century, and the Quinisext Council (Council in Trullo) of 692 had decreed that Christ should be represented in human form rather than, symbolically, as the lamb. . Far removed from the chaos in Turkey and the Holy Land, St. Catherine's Monastery in Egypt did not experience the destructive nature of the Iconoclasm. Figure 1. Iconoclasm Iconoclastic activity can be directly observed in the mosaics of the church of the Dormition (or Koimesis) at Nicaea (znik, Turkey). The original theological basis for iconoclasm was fairly weak. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Icons were typically painted on wood or made with mosaic tile, although other media can be used. Thus, in 800, Charlemagne was crowned the Emperor of Rome in Saint Peters Basilica. Iconoclasm They also mandated that Christ be depicted as a human rather than symbolically as a lamb in order to affirm Christs incarnation and saving works. With 503 contributors from 201 colleges, universities, museums, and research So while the inscription implies that iconoclasts removed a figural image from this position, this ninth-century Virgin and Child mosaic installed after the Triumph of Orthodoxy may be the first such figural image to occupy this position in Hagia Sophia. Arguments relied mostly on the Old Testament prohibition (quoted above). However, the iconoclasts were people who wanted icons removed and destroyed; did not want the icons to remain. WebThe first phase of iconoclasm ended in 787, when the Seventh Ecumenical (universal) Council of bishops, met in Nicaea. Iconoclasm was embraced by Emperor Leo III, who ruled from 717-to 741 and instituted a plan of destroying existing icons. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. St Catherine's Monastery at Mount Sinai has the largest collection of Byzantine icons today. Iconophiles like John of Damascus and Theodore the Studite supported icons as images to worship. Since some icons were believed to date to the time of Christ, icons were understood to offer a kind of proof thatthe Son of God entered the world as a human being, died on the cross, rose from the dead, and ascended into heavenall for the salvation of humankind. 51-62, Berghahn Books in association with the Faculty of Humanities, Development and Social Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The consequent loss to the treasury weighed all the more severely, since victories won by the Arabs in Asia Minor (781) and by the Bulgars (792) led both peoples to demand and receive tribute as the price of peace. Such accounts support the view that these mosaic revisions were neither a result of Byzantine iconoclasm nor the product of forcefully imposed Muslim policies, but rather the result of interactions between Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities in Jordan and Palestine. Pope Gregory II refused to accept the iconoclastic doctrines of Leo III, and his successor, Gregory III, had to openly condemn them at a council. In the two remaining ones, he rejects the possibility of representing the divine nature of Christ. Iconoclasts and iconodules agreed on one fundamental point: a Christian people could not prosper unless it assumed the right attitude toward the holy images, or icons. Michaels contribution to the iconoclast movement was banning the discussion of icons, and Theophilos renewed the persecutions of those who worshiped them. 7 Grabar, Oleg, The formation of Islamic art, rev. Download: English | German. The contested place of images in Islam is much in the news now, but the Judeo-Christianity tradition has also seen a long history of conflict over images. Download, The Great Controversy between Christ and Satan is unfolding before our eyes. Later sources describe Theodora as a secret iconophile during her husbands iconoclastic reign, although there is a lack of evidence to support this. After Christian crusaders captured Jerusalem, the Prison of Christ featured on pilgrims' itineraries. The Iconoclasm started in 725 CE when the Byzantine emperor Leo III banned icons in the Byzantine Empire. In the Byzantine empire, images became increasingly associated with the veneration of relics and the cult of the saints. Try refreshing the page, or contact customer support. All rights reserved. Even the restoration of icon veneration in 787 failed to bridge the differences between Orthodox Byzantium and Catholic Europe, for the advisers of Pippins son and successor, Charlemagne, condemned the iconodule position as heartily as an earlier generation had rejected the iconoclast decrees of Leo III. The controversy spanned roughly a century, during the years 72687 and 81543. How did the Byzantine Empire get its name? Iconoclasm, a term meaning the destruction of images, represents a period of Byzantine history when the State prohibited the production of religious images. After Emperor Teophilos died in 842, his wife Theodora and the new patriarch Methodius summoned a new council in Constantinople, thus reaffirming the decisions of the pro-iconography 7th Ecumenical Council. Mosaics from the church on the acropolis in Main, Jordan, are examples of such partial revisions. Byzantine iconoclasm was revived again in 815, but was ultimately condemned in 843. In the patriarch Ignatius (847858; 867877) they discovered a spokesman after their own hearts: one drawn from the monastic ranks and contemptuous of all the allurements that the world of secular learning seemed to offer. "corePageComponentGetUserInfoFromSharedSession": true, Iconoclasm She has a BA in History from Miami University and an MS in Higher Education Administration from Miami University. Do the works in the exhibition support such a view? Iconomachy (Greek for image struggle) was the term the Byzantines used to describe the Iconoclastic Controversy. Western Christianity doesnt have an official equivalent. According to iconoclasts, Jesus should only be represented in the Eucharist. Krum died suddenly in 814 as he was preparing an attack upon Constantinople, and his son, Omortag, arranged a peace with the Byzantine Empire in order to protect the western frontiers of his Bulgar empire against the pressures exerted by Frankish expansion under Charlemagne and his successors. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content. Christ Pantocrator (The Ruler of the Universe), Catacombs of Commodilla, fourthcentury. However, anyone who was an iconophile supported icons and wanted to keep worshiping them. . iconoclasm synonyms, iconoclasm pronunciation, iconoclasm translation, English dictionary definition of iconoclasm. JSTOR is part of ITHAKA, a not-for-profit organization helping the academic community use digital technologies to preserve the scholarly record and to advance research and teaching in sustainable ways. The immediate destruction wrought by Constantine and his zealous subordinates is, however, of less moment than the lasting effect of the persecution on the Orthodox clergy. Iconoclasm refers to the destruction of images or hostility toward visual representations in general. The name derives from Byzantine Iconoclasm, a conflict in the Byzantine Empire between supporters and opponents of religious images. Let us consider the examples of three Byzantine churches, whose mosaics offer visual evidence of the Iconoclastic Controversy and subsequent Triumph of Orthodoxy: Hagia Eirene in Constantinople (Istanbul), the Dormition in Nicaea (znik, Turkey), and Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (Istanbul). Once Ravenna fell to the Lombards, and the exarchate ceased to exist in 751, the papacy had to seek a new protector. Historical texts suggest the struggle over images began in the 720s. 5 Brubaker, Leslie, Inventing Byzantine iconoclasm, Bristol 2012Google Scholar. The prohibition was lifted from 787 to 815, but reinstated thereafter. Similar images have been found in the earliest-known Christian house church, which was constructed in Dura-Europos, Syria, in 235. The new emperor, Michael II, was indeed able to establish a dynastythe Amorian, or Phrygianhis son Theophilus (829842) and his grandson Michael III (842867) each occupying the throne in turn, but none would have forecast so happy a future during Michael IIs first years. You shall not make for yourself a carved imageany likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Have a correction or comment about this article? Constantine V took the Roman ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the Balkans and gave it to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.